"Exorcism is high on the list of African Independent Church activities and takes place at every healing ceremony". This observation of Oosthuizen1 is confirmed by Daneel. Referring to such practices in Zimbabwe, he stated as follows: "In the regular Sabbath-day services exorcism of spirits forms the concluding part of ritual activity, whereas special late-night ceremonies may be arranged next to camp-fires on occasions of joint Sabbath meetings, when the members of several congregations meet for a weekend of combined worship. The latter type ceremony, rather that the former, highlights the Apostolic (Apostolic-type independent churches - MCK) preoccupation with the spirit world".2 The belief in evil forces and the practice of exorcism have not entered the AICs via Christianity but have always been part and parcel of African spirituality and African experience. In African experiences illnesses are ascribed to a disturbance of the balance between a person and spiritual and mystical forces, and the aim of healing is to restore the equilibrium through rituals, ceremonies sacrifices, medicine and other means. With the coming of Christianity to Africa these concepts of illness and health and the practices of restoring health, have to varying degrees, been incorporated into the church life of the African. These views and practices today are the corner stone of the AICs.3
But in this experience Africa is not alone. Belief in and experience of spirit manifestations are found all over the world. "Spirit possession and spirit mediumship are among the most wide-spread and most intriguing phenomena in the occult field. Under these names or as ecstasy, pythonism, demon possession, devil-dancing, shamanism, spiritism, spiritualism, they have been the subject of a vast literature extending over at least two thousand years".4
A vital concern in Africa is to retain the equilibrium in social relationships, relationships disturbed by adverse forces. As the Bible also emphasises relationships and also speaks about forces of good and evil one is not surprised that within the AICs special attention is given to these forces and how to counteract them. To restore or retain the equilibrium the evil forces, brought to bear by the adversary must be driven out, chased away and kept at bay.
Exorcism practices in the AICs, therefore, spring from a least two main sources: traditional African practices and biblical injunctions, guidelines and practices. Connected with the latter, are the deliverance practices in the traditional churches which must have influenced the healing ministry in the AICs. New needs under new circumstances would also give rise to new practices. For the purpose of this paper I will briefly survey the practice of exorcism throughout the history of the church, including the AICs. Then I will highlight the main features of the practice of exorcism in the AIcs, compared, when applicable, with those in African tradition, in the Bible, in church history and with the ministry of some modern western exorcists.

Short History of exorcism in the church

Adolf van Harnack gives us an interesting picture of the belief in demons and the practices of exorcism in the early church. He said that the Christians made their appearance throughout the world as exorcists of demons, and that exorcism was a very powerful missionary and propagandist weapon. The world was understood to be under the dominion of the spirit of darkness and his legions; they not only sat upon thrones but also surrounded the infant's cradle.5 Jesus Christ and the first Christians were not the first or the only exorcists. In Luke 11:19 Jesus referred to Jews who were also casting out demons. Josephus Flavius the first-century historian, traces this power back to Solomon. Part of Solomon's wisdom was that he was skilful with herbs, and that he had invented incantations by which he expelled demons so forcefully so that they never returned. Josephus also stated that he had seen Solomon's methods being used in his own day.6 Although the early Christians did not have a monopoly on exorcism Justin Martyr, a second-century church father, was in no doubt that the Christians could drive possessing devils out of people where other exorcist with their drugs and incantations had failed. Tertullian even went so far as to say that every Christian should know how to exorcise demons.7
The baptismal order of Hippolytus of Rome (+ 220 AD) placed renunciation of the devil and exorcism in the context of baptism. The candidate for baptism was asked, "Do you renounce the devil and all his works?" The candidate then answered, "Yes I renounce the devil and all his works". After this baptism took place.8 Oosthuizen comments that the above-mentioned Roman liturgy emphasises that baptism is an act of forgiveness of sins which was preceded by driving out demons as an independent act.9 One does however, appreciate the difference between renouncing the devil and exorcising him, although these two acts may complement one another. Presently exorcism is understood as the practice of expelling evil spirits who took possession of a person and who control such a person's behaviour. However, in the early church the term was also used for expelling evil spirits who had not even manifested themselves. That is why in the Middle Ages exorcism could form part of infant baptism. The service included a thice-repeated breathing on the face of the infant with the accompanying words: "Depart from him, you unclean spirit, and give place to the Holy Spirit".10
The need was felt for the practices of exorcism to become standardized. In 1614 the Rituale Romanum was written on the request of Pope Paul V. It contained prayers and readings from the Bible addressed to the demonized person and a command in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, to the evil or unclean spirit to go from "the image of god". The ritual also advised the exorcising priest to make the sign of the cross, to wind his stole around the neck of the possessed person and to perform the lay-on of hands. Sacraments, holy water, the crucifix and other sacred objects could also be used. From Protestant side the First Prayer book of Edward VI (1549) also contained a rite of exorcism by which the unclean spirits were commanded to depart. In 1626 a Manuale Exorcismorum gave detailed guidelines as to how exorcisms should be carried out. According to the Manual faith in God and Jesus Christ is the most powerful tool of the exorcist.11
From the middle of the 20th century a new wave of interest in demons and exorcism washed over many of the mainline churches. The horror film "The Exorcist" released in 1973 and chilling court case involving killings connected with exorcist practices fanned the interest. At the same time the Charismatic Movement was beginning to take off world wide. People not only became more aware of the reality of the power of the Holy Spirit but also of the grip of evil spirits. Many Christians in England disillusioned with the mainstream churches started house churches resulting in the still growing House Church Movement in England. These churches often interpret any symptoms of disquiet as demon problems and often practise exorcism.12
The Church of England was also alerted to the problems of demonization and exorcism. The Bishop of Exeter, troubled because few people in the Church of England had any knowledge or experience of exorcism, brought together psychiatrists, priests and theologians in order to produce a report on the subject.13 The result was a booklet, Exorcism, published in 1972. It started by saying that it could not be overstressed that the concept of demonic possession was extremely dubious. However, it conceded, that the need for exorcism, when all other steps had been taken, might still arise. For the practice of exorcism the report advised that the procedures set out in the Rituale Romanum of 1614 or contained in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI, or the Eastern Syrian rite be followed. Much of the advice found in the Manuale Exorcismorum was included in the report.
An opposite view was presented by 65 signatories in an open letter issued in May 1975. Among those were thirteen theology professors and five Anglican theological college principals. They noted the growth of the practice of exorcism but were of the opinion that "exorcism should have no official status in the Church at all". Despite their protest the House of Bishops decided in July 1975 that people in the grip of the power of evil needed the aid of the Christian church in delivering them from it. This ministry should, inter alia, be done in collaboration with the resources of medicine and in the context of prayer and sacrament, it should be done by experienced persons authorized by the diocesan bishop, and be followed up by continuing pastoral care.14
The Church of Scotland did not follow the Church of England. In 1976 the former concluded that such a ceremonial as exorcism within the practice of the church was doing more harm than good. Nine years later the Church of Scotland underlined its rejection of exorcism by stating that exorcism ceremonies appeared to create unjustified belief, anxiety and hysteria about demons or a devil.15
Nearer home, the Roman Catholic Church in South Africa specially refers to evil spirits in its blessing of the water. The Collectio Rituum reads, inter alia, as follows: "Grant that this creature of thine, in the services of the mysteries, may effect the purpose of divine grace to banish all evil spirits and drive away diseases.16
Different was the attitude of the Dutch Reformed Church Synod of Southern Transvaal. In October 1993 the Synod discussed the issue of demonic or satanic bondage. It rejected the notion that believers could be bound by demons, and also rejected the idea of a ministry of deliverance from evil spirits. It urged church members not to make use of people claiming to conduct such a ministry.17

The AICs and Exorcism

The missionaries who came to Africa usually took an extreme negative stand viz-a-viz spirit-possession and exorcism. Wizardry and magic were condemned as superstitious beliefs and idolatry. Even the traditional medicine-man was viewed with suspicion and was sometimes considered to be a witch himself.18 The belief that evil spirits were considered to be responsible for some types of illnesses were often not even mentioned to missionaries.19 Missionaries in Southern Africa trying to exorcise such evil spirits must have been an extremely rare sight. However, although the Dutch Reformed Church, for example, was unyielding regarding traditional beliefs and rites, Daneel mentions that missionaries of this church had successfully dealt with several cases of spirit-possession. Some women missionaries there had also developed their own spiritual techniques of exorcising troublesome spirits from afflicted church members.20
It is true that "in Christian proselytization in the nineteenth century, possession and mediumship often presented problems for the missionary, who found himself opposed, as he thought, by evil spirits in person.21 On the other hand, the new converts to Christianity also had their problems with the missionaries and their views and practices. Independent churches have in fact accused the missionaries of having concealed the biblical references to sorcery.22 One can also doubt whether the missionaries ever referred to possession by evil spirits in biblical times and whether they tried to relate that to spirit-possession in the African society. The fact is that the churches did not take the fears of the African seriously, thereby making it impossible for the converts to vent their problems. During the 1960's this attitude started to change. Historical churches not only began focusing more on healing, and not only attempted to present Christ as medicine-man (nyanga), but some pastors in these churches were becoming engaged in exorcising evil spirits.23
Healing on biblical grounds and exorcism after the examples in the Bible were given a place in the independent churches before the mission churches started focussing attention on sorcery, witchcraft, spirit-possession and their pastoral implications. Once the African churches have moved away from mission control, influence and teaching, they could create room in the church for the treatment of illnesses associated with the activities of spirits.
Historically speaking the impetus came from overseas via the Christian Catholic Church in Zion founded by John Alexander Dowie in Illinois in 1896 and the Apostolic Faith Mission, brought to South Africa by John Lake, Thomas Hezmalhalch and others. Both these movements strongly supported and practised faith healing,24 and both movements played a major role in the rise and growth of the AICs.25 Already in 1908 Thomas Hezmalhalch of the AFM wrote about a deliverance of a demon-possessed person, and during the next year "demons were cast out" of THL Schumann who then became a member of the Board of Trustees of the AFM.26 Perhaps one can assume that shortly after this time exorcism also started to emerge in the Zionist-type and Apostolic-type independent churches. Both these groups emphasise healing in a cosmological context.27
The magazine, Leaves of Healing, the publication of John Alexander Dowie, was available in South Africa. This publication usually carried news and witnesses of divine healing and deliverances from ordinary diseases but also from "liquor habit and secret societies" and from "doctors and drugs".28 Such healing practices which not only took care of physical ailments but also attended to other aspects of a person's well-being undoubtedly appealed also to the AICs with their African cosmology. In such healings the members of the AICs could not fail to hear the voice of African tradition but also the voice of the Bible.
It is interesting to note that at the same time as when the healing ministry became a main activity in the AICs, a new type of spirit possession, called amafufunyana, started manifesting itself. The possessing spirits are presumed to be foreign. It is believed that those spirits entered South Africa from Mozambique via the migrant workers.29 Amafufunyana first occurred in Zululand after 1910. Since both Zionism and amafufunyama spirit possession spread from Zululand at about the same time it is natural to look for a connection. The suggestion, however, that the Zionists brought this kind of possession with them30 is not much helpful.
A characteristic feature of this type of possession is that voices are heard speaking from the patient. These voices are usually not those of the patient. Other features are: the voices become agitated and aggressive in the presence of "church people" or when prayers are offered, the patient at a certain stage may evince unusual strength, there is usually much crying and screaming by the patient, and most of the victims are girls or women.31 Edwards comments that those characteristics put amafufunyana spirit possession in line with the New Testament narrative of the man possessed by demons and exorcised by Jesus Christ. He continues, "The face-value similarities with the New Testament accounts may be an added incentive to prophet healers of the Zionist-type independent churches to make a speciality of healing, or attempting to heal, cases of amafufunyana spirit possession by exorcism in the name of Jesus, along with other supportive forms of treatment. The challenge is particularly attractive because the phenomenon of spirit possession "straddles their traditional religious world-view and their Christian experience".32
 

Exorcism practices in the AICs

Since 1960 more voices were heard arguing for the importance of the ministry of exorcism or deliverance in the African mainline churches. It was claimed that exorcism has succeeded in bringing relief to some affected people whereas other methods have failed.33 But the AICs already knew that and today "exorcism is one of the main activities within the indigenous churches, one in which the prayer healers play a major role".34
The fact that black people of all denominations take the negative forces of the African cosmology seriously has also been illustrated by a survey amongst Biblical Studies students at the University of Zululand. 97% Of the research sample of 130 students belong to mainline churches. 98% Of those students stated that they had knowledge of demon-possessed people, indicating that they "believed in" demon-possession. People, in their opinion, who would be best equipped to handle demon-possessed patients were faith-healers and ministers of religion. The isangoma or inyanga would also be consulted, but the medical doctor as helper in such cases scored low. The most successful methods for expelling demons would be, in the respondents' opinion, prayer and commanding the spirit(s) in the name of Jesus Christ to leave. The use of water prayed over was also considered effective. Singing and dancing could also assist.
The most important elements in exorcism practices in the AICs will now be discussed in the light of biblical examples and guidelines, with references to church history and the practices of modern Christians involved in a ministry of deliverance.
The modern Christian "exorcists" to whom I will refer are Kurt Koch, Maxwell Whyte, Bill Subritzky and Neil Anderson. Kurt Koch of Germany started counselling people in "occult boudage" during the 1930's. His ministry of deliverance from demonic possession and evil powers is well known, as is his popular book Occult boudage and deliverance (1970). Another leading figure was Maxwell Whyte of Canada who had his first experience in exorcism in 1948. His actiology will certainly find favour in the AICs for he maintains "that the real forces behind the world of physical matter are spiritual" and "the real cause of sickness is neither mental nor physical, it is spiritual". He cites the example of Peter's mother-in-law recorded in Luke 4:38,39 and comments: "As soon as the spirit behind the fever heard, understood and obeyed, the fever left and she was healed".35 From New Zealand we have Bill Subritzky who has held every position open to a lay person in the Church of England. His major books on his exorcism practices are How to cast out demons and break curses and Demons defeated (1985).
A modern counsellor who assists people to find freedom from "spiritual bondage" is Neil Anderson of the Department of Practical Theology at the Talbot School of Ciola University. He claims not to be an "exorcist" and does not believe that there is a gift of exorcism, but he does take occult bondage and demonic activity and its influence on people seriously. Anderson's lastest books are The bondage braker (1990) and Release from bondage (1992).

The Role of the Holy Spirit

Writing on the task of the prophet-healer in the AICs Oosthuizen says, "The evil spirit has to be exorcised. While this was done by the diviner under the guidance of an ancestor spirit(s), the prophet calls for assistance from "the Spirit"/Holy Spirit and/or messenger(s)...".36 There is certainly reason for writing "'the Spirit'/Holy Spirit" for the issue regarding the origin and essence of the Spirit who or which fills and assists and makes exorcism possible has not been resolved. Mostert sees the Spirit (uMoya) as "personalized force" from two sources, two realities: the African understanding of life and the Biblical revelation.37 Hammond-Took speaks of the "logic of syncretism", syncretism of four disparate elements - ancestral spirits, witch familiars, spirits of affliction and the Holy Spirit - to enable African "to cope cognitively with the practical and moral dilemmas that face them in a fast-changing and highly unstructured society".38 Daneel concedes that "in practice there is a wide range of Spirit manifestations, varying from pretence and religious drama to full possessions which involve trance-like behaviour".39 This seems to include, apart from the spirits mentioned by Hammond-Tooke, manifestations of the human spirit and its journeys, some of them scientifically mapped but others not. Though Paul mentions the gift of discernment of spirits (1 Cor 12:10) it is, after all not an easy matter to identify spiritual manifestations.
Our task in this paragraph is however, not to discern the spirits operative in healing but to find the link between the Holy Spirit, whatever meaning is attached, and exorcism.
Healers in the AICs all agree on the active role of the Holy Spirit in healing, including exorcism. It is through the Holy Spirit that people are called to become healer-prophets, it is through the Spirit that they can see the cause of the illness, the Spirit often give them the method of healing, handclapping, singing, dancing and fasting put people under the control of the Spirit and gives the healer more power. In healing sessions the main emphasis is on being fully under the control of the Spirit.
Demons or evil spirits are sometimes seen as opposing the Holy Spirit for they are workers of the devil. However, a person can get rid of them by praying and through Jesus Christ and through the Holy Spirit.40
At the sea, a potent place to remove evil forces, the emphasis is also on the Holy Spirit. "Getting the Spirit" is an important theme in all baptisms. The Holy Spirit not only reveals the secrets of the sea, but gives "power" to the water, especially when prayed over.41 Because of this power evil spirits have to go when the patient is emerged.42
The staff used in exorcism, is seen as an instrument in conveying the power of the Spirit to the person to be exorcised.43 In the act of exorcism the demon-possessed is often beaten, especially on the shoulders. An explanation was that it was "the Spirit" who made them do the hitting because they were fighting the devil inside the person.44
Flags not only remove or ward off evil spirits but they are often seen as a sign of the ability of the healer to confer the Spirit.45
As the AICs see spirit possession together with sorcery and witchcraft as malicious powerful forces responsible for illnesses and disturbed social relationships, it is understandable that the Spirit as "a numinous reality with accompanying experiences of power",46 will be emphasised in exorcism. The great emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit is because "the concept provides a potent counterbalance to the realities of the existential situation" of so many members of the AICs.47
By giving a salient position to the Holy Spirit as an empowering force in the healing and exorcism activists, "the concept "power" resonates strongly with traditional African conceptions.48 There the term spirit (uMoya) stands as "a force which keeps man alive, the vital force in man's existence ... the source of man's strength.49 But power is also the characteristic of angry ancestors, witches and alien spirits, all of which can cause illnesses and other misfortunes.50
The biblical message of the power of the Holy Spirit (Luke 24:49, Act 1:8) undoubtedly struck a familiar note with early African Christians and reminded them of their own uMoya as a vital force. The biblical message of being filled controlled and led by the Holy Spirit must have caused them to see parallels with possession by spirits according to their own cosmology. But this does not necessarily mean that the AICs understand the Holy Spirit in terms of African traditional beliefs. Daneel maintains that many prophets in the AICs "have gained sufficient insight about the work of the Holy Spirit according to Biblical norms to be aware of the dangers of misinterpretation involved" and that there is sufficient evidence indicating that the revelations of the Spirit are not just mere adaptations to traditional patterns but that they cut across and transform traditional religious practices".51
If the AICs drive out demons and heal by the power of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12:9), they are following the example of Jesus Christ who also expelled evil spirits through the Spirit of God (Matt 12:28). However, Jesus Christ himself and warned against the practice of driving out demons in the name of Christ, without doing the will of God and without following Christ (Matt 7:21,22).
The role of the Spirit in exorcism has not always received prominence in the historical churches. Only with the coming of the Pentecostal Movement to South Africa at the beginning of the 20th century has it been preached and practised with conviction that healing, including exorcism, is biblical and one of the main gifts of the Holy Spirit.52
Modern Christian exorcists acknowledge the indispensability of the Holy Spirit. Kurt Koch says that the Holy Spirit is able to sweep away in an instant all considerations and give immediate help.53 Subritzky believes that the anointing of the Holy Spirit is one of the most powerful ways of seeing people delivered. His experience is that "demons cannot stand the anointing of the Holy Spirit because through it they recognize our priestly authority in Jesus Christ. As in the AICs Subritzky testifies that the Spirit directs him how to pray for the demonized person and where to place his hand on the patient's body. The Holy Spirit even tells him sometimes when to command the demon to leave.54
Over against these claims of Subritzky, Anderson is very reticent regarding the role of the Holy Spirit in exorcism. He stresses the filling and the guidance of the Holy Spirit after deliverance.55 Whyte is of the opinion that everybody active in the ministry of exorcism must be filled with the Spirit, but at the same time he warns those relying on the gifts of the Spirit to make sure that they are being led by the Spirit and not by their own fallible minds.56
According to the above outline one can say that the AICs duly recognize the role of the Holy Spirit in exorcism, though it may be that their conception of the Holy Spirit is open to discussion.

The power of water

Water has always played an important role in African life. Africans understand that water comes from "heaven" and has an important spiritual content. When a spell is pronounced over the water the life-giving force of water is activated.57 In healing practices, including exorcism, water plays a dominant role. The major emphasis is on purification: the water cleanses, it is an expellent. "Purification belongs to the consciousness of the religious person who is disturbed or whose position in relation to the community has become disturbed and who wishes to have this restored", says Oosthuizen.58 When mixed with salt, ash or some other ingredients water then has the role of taking the evil out through vomiting.59
In the AICs great emphasis is placed on acquisition of power through baptism at the sea. The evil spirits are driven out by the "powerful" water and health is restored. The major precondition is that the water has to be blessed by the leader.60
In Zimbabwe undesirable spirits are driven out during baptismal ceremonies. It is believed that the force of the Holy Spirit in the water makes is impossible for the alien spirit to remain in the person being baptised. Should the spirit persist, the possessed person is "lashed" with "holy water". Living quarters are also sprinkled with "holy water" to keep the spirits out. Drinking hallowed water assists in exorcising evil spirits.61
In the Bible water and healing are sometimes connected (2 Kings 5:14, John 5:1-7,9:7). In the early church the baptismal water had wonderful power; it was a "holy stream", eternal fountain, divine water, saving water, healing water, the fountain of life. Water baptism and exorcism of demonic spirits of the candidates for baptism were part of one ritual.62 In the Roman Catholic Church even today water prayed over is seen as assisting in driving or keeping evil spirits away.63
The use of water by modern exorcists and people in the estabished churches involved in breaking demonic bondage is fairly rare. Subritzky, however maintains that water baptism is "a powerful way of cutting off the old man and the demon powers". He has also found "that when water is blessed and then applied to a person seeking deliverance, there can be real release from demon power".64
With the use of water in their exorcism activities, the healers in the AICs can to a certain extent refer to the Bible to justify their activities, but much more to the healing practices in the history of the church. They can even point to Subritzky in the Churchof England to strengthen their cause.

Confession

An essential part of the healing service of the Zionist is that where confessions are made and ill-health is declared. This activity also known as ukuhlambuluka (hlamba = to clean or to clear) is, however, in essence an exercise "to create a sense of mutual trust and dependence and to anticipate in a positive manner the unfailing support of the
congregation.65 At the same time the church services have a catharsis function as confession, singing and dancing are encouraged.66
But confession is also personal and individual. Daneel related how healers exhorted the patients to confess all their sins. This was followed by public accounts of wrongful deeds. Patients could even whisper if they wished to make a very private confession. They were told that water and prayer could lose their power if patients refused to confess everything. In this way "subjective co-operation of the patients involved is emphasized as a prerequisite for successful treatment".67
In respect of confession and its role in the process of healing the AICs are in line with Scripture, in particular James 5:14-16. It must, however, be granted that this periscope does not specifically mention demon-possessed people as being included in those who are sick.
Many modern Christian counselors and those in the ministry of deliverance agree that confession of sins in accordance with James 5:14-16 is essential for successful exorcism. Subritzky found that through such confession together with anointment with oil "demons manifest and disappear". He is convinced that the "final key" to deliverance is repentance.68 Whyte's opinion is "confession is therapeutic".69 Kurt Koch says, "Occultly oppressed people should in fact make an open confession of every single hidden thing in their lives in order to remove the very last foothold of the enemy".70 Anderson also values confession highly and in his counselling programme a number of prayers are included in which confession of sins is made. He also quotes James 5:16.71
Regarding confession as an important link in the process of exorcism the AICs largely move in line with James 5:14-16 and with those in the modern ministry of deliverance of demonised people.

Praying and fasting

Prayer has a place in the exorcism activities of the AICs. Not only are prayers offered for the victim, water is also prayed over to fill it with power. "Prayers often give the impression that the words so forcefully expressed should exorcise the evil forces present in the patient".72 Praying for the sick also involves touching the affected parts and sometimes remonstrating with the evil spirits".73
Most of the healers in the AICs fast before healing sessions. This they do because they believe that fasting and praying make them more powerful and more open to the Spirit and his control.74 Looking from a psychological side it is maintained that fasting makes "the transpersonal level of awareness" more readily accessible. This is also what prayer does. By "getting deeply into the patient's identity and process, the therapist is able to work in whatever way is appropriate to facilitate healing".75
Scripture also advises prayer and fasting for expelling demons (Matt 17:21). In the early church praying and fasting were intimately connected with baptism and
exorcism.76 The Manuale Exorcismorum of 1626 advised the exorcist to prepare himself inwardly by fasting and
praying.77
Today praying and fasting are still considered either essential or valuable in attending to people plagued by evil spirits. Whyte, Koch, Subritzky and Anderson emphasise the indispensable role of prayers offered in faith, and all could testify to the healing and restoring power released by prayer.78 Anderson in particular makes much of prayers offered by the patients themselves in order to clear the way for deliverance.79
Regarding fasting, three of the four persons mentioned above see merit in fasting in order to effect successful exorcism. Whyte maintains that fasting would not "twist God's arm", but it shows the supplicant's seriousness for healing;80 Koch says that fasting has "a meaningful place in the supporting of a person's fervent prayers,81 and Subritzky has no doubts that fasting can be a powerful weapon in deliverance as long as it is done with the correct motives" In his opinion "fasting seems to bring our spirit alive and open our spirit to the Holy Spirit.82 This view is partly in line with that of Edwards mentioned above. Edwards maintains that praying and fasting open one up to our fellow-person, while Subritzky holds that fasting (and certainly also prayer - MCK) opens one up to God. This view also prima facie reflects a similarity with that of the AICs.
When all this is said we can conclude that the practice of praying and fasting by healers in the AICs is formally fairly in accordance with Scripture, church history and modern practice.

The name of Jesus Christ

In the healing activities of the AICs Jesus Christ is not given much prominence. "One seldom hears that among the prophet/prayer healers that Jesus Christ gave them their various gifts or that there is any involvement from his side in healing procedures".83 It is, however, admitted by prophet-healers that in order to get rid of demons one must "believe in God and His Son, Jesus, because demons do not like God, and his Son, Jesus".84 The reason for the salience of "the Spirit" rather than that of Jesus Christ in treating demon-possessed is because "Jesus is seen in the context of the western doctor", he has "not stepped into the depth of the African cosmology".85
If the name of Jesus Christ is neglected in the AICs when they are removing evil spirits it seems to be at variance with the practices recorded in the Bible. The Bible leaves us in no uncertainty that the apostles healed in the name and power of Jesus Christ, (Acts 3:6,4:10) and that demons where driven out in the name of Jesus Christ (Acts 16:18).
Throughout the history of the church the trinitarian formula was used for attending to people believed to the controlled by evil spirits. Such spirits were commanded in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit to depart from that person. Significantly enough, even where more power is ascribed to the Spirit than to the Son healer-prophets maintain that demons as workers of the devil can be dispelled by "praying to God, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit".86 Sunkler also observed that exorcism practices included the calling on the name of the triune
God.87
Most modern exorcists will most probably agree with Whyte that there is "great authority in the name of Christ ... No demon can ignore the command of faith given by a child of God. He must obey, just as though Jesus Himself were speaking".88 "Nothing fills the demons with more fear than the name and the blood of Jesus". Connected with this view of Kurt Koch (1970:109) is his belief that commanding evil spirits in the name of Jesus Christ is an effective way of dealing with them. He does, however, stress that this commanding can never be a "mere formality".89
Subritzky is certain that a simple command to a demon to go will always be effective "when the demon knows that you are acting under God's authority through Jesus Christ".90
Anderson, on the other hand, while also taking a Jesucentric view by proclaiming that Jesus Christ is the bondage breaker, does not "confront demons head-on". He has not attempted to "cast out a demon" in several year. He does not deal directly with demons, but with their victims. He further cautions in translating examples and methods in the Gospels and the Book of Acts into abiding absolutes.91
In the light of these details one may conclude that the AICs who do not command the demons in the name of Jesus Christ to leave but seek deliverance, like the church through the ages, by believing in the Triune God and calling upon his name, are not unbiblical and are in accordance which the practice of a large part of the historical church.

Laying-on of hands

Laying-on of hands is often part of the healing activities of the AICs.92 J C Shembe expressed the view that anyone who has enough faith can heal by laying hands on a sick person.93 Power is conveyed through this practice and evil forces driven away.94
The ritual of laying-on of hands must have come to the AICs through the Bible and the history of Christianity. Here the example of Jesus and his followers (for example in Matt 8:15, Luke 13:11-13) and the injunction contained in James played an important role. The booklet Exorcism, published in 1972, gives "frequent laying-on of hands" as one of the guidelines for dealing with people who believed themselves to be possessed by evil spirits.95
Not all modern "exorcists" emphasize laying-on of hands. Whyte, Koch and Anderson do not including laying-on of hands as part of their therapy. Subritzky, on the other hand is in no uncertainty that such a practice as part of the process of deliverance is "absolutely scriptural". He continues: "As we lay hands on people with the authority of Jesus Christ in the deliverance ministry, we will find that the power of God surges through our body and touches the person for whom we are praying. They sense the anointing of God and the demon powers begin to leave".96 This view of Subritzky shows remarkable similarity with those of the AICs mentioned above, except that the name and authority of Jesus Christ is not prominent in the AICs.

Using the Bible

Although the Bible takes demon possession seriously the AICs seldom use the Bible in their exorcism procedures. The Bible is often read at the healing sessions and is brought to the beach where exorcisms often take place, but it does not function specifically in exorcism.97
In the history of the church the use of the Bible when dealing with possessed persons was not unknown. The Rituale Romanum of 1614 advised Bible-reading as part of the ritual of exorcism.98
People engaged in a Christian ministry of spiritual deliverance do take the Bible seriously. Koch emphasised the necessity for the counsellor to live according to the Bible.99 Anderson would pray and read Scripture while attending to people under demonic influence.100 While Anderson reads Scripture primarily to strengthen the patient by assuring him/her of God's authority, Subritzky uses Scripture also to "torment the demons" and to drive them out because demons hate hearing the Word of God.101

Singing, dancing and handclapping

Singing, dancing and handclapping are part of the African way of life. Hence the common saying that the African would not go to church if their was no music.102 Therefore, it is also natural that music would play a role in the healing procedures of the AICs.
Various reasons are given for singing, dancing and handclapping during healing sessions: these activities put people more easily under the control of "the Spirit", enable "the Spirit" to act more powerfully, and assist in subjecting the patient to the healing procedures. With these activities the group becomes part of the healing procedures. The general view is that the singers and dancers give the healer more power and support the healer incasting out evil spirits.103 Dancing and the making of music have power to drive away demons.104 Daneel describes how "the spirits in a plagued person are lured into putting in an appearance by means of song and dancing" and in accompaniment to "the rhythm of the hypnotic background singing" the "demon" is exorcised through the laying - on of hand and by prayer.105
Viewed in the light of the Bible, we can find at least one example where music assisted in driving away an evil spirit. The afflicted was King Saul and the music-maker David (1 Sam 16:23).
The history of the church do not give evidence of the use of music in the process of exorcism. Neither do our modern counsellors Koch, Whyte, Subritzky and Anderson make use of music and singing in their therapy. Perhaps one of the reasons is that African healing takes place in the context of the community, it is a reflection of collective responsibility.106 Western healing practices, including exorcism, mostly lack the communal context.

The use of objects

Various objects are used in exorcism in the AICs. Very common is the use of the staff. The staff is part of the basic equipment of every initiated Zionist. It is rich in symbolic context. According to Kiernan "a variety of mystical power is seen to flow from it; warding off attacks, driving out spirits, cooling dangerous stages, inculcating order and control within the community. It is through the acquisition of the staff that each Zionist gains access tothis rich diversity of spiritual powers".107
The staff, associated with Moses who used it to perform miracles, is used "to fight the devil", it gives power, especially when regularly purified and ritually strengthened in running water, in water mixed with ash of by dipping it into the sea.108 "Holy" staves are pressed against a person, or the possessed person is hit with staves to "fight the devil" and to remove the evil spirits.109
Flags are widely used by prayer healers and prophets. "Flags are both the symbols and bearers of protective power. They ward off evil forces".110
Cords are also used in exorcism practices in the AICs. The cords are usually wrapped around a person as protection against the forces of evil,111 but prayed-for cords are alsosometimes used in the process of exorcism.112 When the use of objects in exorcism are compared with exorcism practices described in the Bible, the practices in the AICs are much richer in symbolism. Acts 19:12, however, does record that evil spirits were cast out by using handkerchiefs and aprons handled by Paul. In the history of the church the use of objects in exorcism was not unknown. The Rituale Romanum of 1614 advised the priest to make the sign of the cross, to wind his stole around the neck of the possessed person, and to perform the laying-on of hands. It was also recommended that the possessed individual should hold a crucifix throughout the exorcism.113
Some modern western exorcists still make use of the crucifix in exorcism, while the American evangelist Morris Cerullo tell his followers to carry special prayer cloths anointed with oil for release from bondage.114 Koch, Whyte, Subritzky and Anderson do not seem to use objects in dealing with demonized persons. Subritzky, however, has the following to say: "I find that as people confess their sins in accordance with James 5:14-16 and we anoint them with oil, the demons manifest and disappear.115

Conclusion

Spirit possession may be explained, according to Edwards, as "a constellation of stress-related phenomena associated with socio-cultural transition" and as "one of the ways in which humankind deals with conditions where the threshold of psychological tolerance has been overstepped". But it is conceded that "the illness is structurally and perhaps even casually related to the belief system:116 The African belief system dictates that these diseases which are to be understood in the African context, the ukufa kwabantu, are caused by the everpresent evil forces and evil spirits. Psychiatry, however, sees what is traditionally believed to be spirit possession as various forms of psychosis.117 Such "possessed" persons often find relief through exorcism. Of course, one can maintain that if the relief is real one does not have to be sure that the so-called spirit possession was real.
It can, however, be strongly argued that evil spirit possession is real. Dickason, like a number of other Christian counsellors to spirit-possessed persons, has found a definite similarity of the principles and particulars involved in both the biblical and clinical record of demonization and deliverance.118 The similarities between spirit possession in African context and the Bible cannot be denied. Furthermore, also the practices of exorcism as applied in the AICs show certain similarities with those in the Bible and in the history of the church.
Oosthuizen states his view as follows: "Demon possession cannot be looked at as mere illusion or superstition or a psychological imbalance. Scripture took it seriously and handled it in the spirit for the sake of those who felt themselves possessed. These people receive close attention in the AIC." But the same scholar also desires a "contextualization of the pastoral approach to evilforces". Exorcism should not become an obsession, "instead of looking at the world as loaded with evil forces, it should be viewed from the fact that it is in spite of these forces in the hands of the infinite Almighty Creator, and that his love has been revealed through His Son who abides with this world always".119
Rachel Storm is sure that "the revival of the Christian healing ministry has also unleashed a host of demons".120
Could it be that the rise and growth of the AICs with their healing ministry also stirred up demons? If so, the suggestion of Kiernan that the Zionists "brought with them" a particular type of spirit possession, is not far-fetched.121 On the other hand, deliverance from evil spirits is experienced in the church, especially in the African Independent Churches. For the Africans evil spirits are disruptive forces, but their church is very often a haven of harmony. And to remain that haven, exorcism will probably for many years to come continue to be "one of the main activities within the indigenous churches".122

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, Allan 1992. Bazalwane - African Pentecostals in
South Africa. Pretoria: University of South Africa.
Anderson, Neil T 1990. The Bondage Breaker. Oregon.
Harvest House.
Anderson, Neil T 1991. Released from Bondage. San
Bernardino: Here's Life Publishers.
Andersson, Efraim 1968. Churches at the Grassroots.
London: Lutterworth.
Becken, H J 1989. "African Independent Churches as healing
communities", in Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds), Afro-
Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Beattie, John and Middleton, John 1969. Spirit Mediumship
and Society in Africa. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul.
Buhrmann, M V 1989. "Religion and healing: the African
experience", in Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds), Afro-
Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Burger, Isak 1987. Die Geskiedenis van die Apostoliese
Geloof Sending van Suid-Afrika (1908-1958).
Braamfontein: Evangeliese Uitgewers.
Collectio Rituum 1960. Durban.
Daneel, M L 1971. Old and New in Southern Shona
Independent Churches. Volume 1: Background and Rise of
the Major Movements. The Hague: Mouton
Daneel, M L. 1974. Old and New in Southern Shona
Independent Churches. Volume II: Church Growth.
The Hague: Mouton.
Dickason, C Fred 1987. Demon Possession and the Christian.
Chicago: Moody Press.
Dube, D 1989. "A search for abundant life: health, healing
and wholeness in Zionist Churches", in Oosthuizen G C
et al (eds), Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in
Southern Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Edwards, F S 1989. "Amafufunyana spirit possession:
Treatment and interpretation", in Oosthuizen G C et al
(eds), Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern
Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Hammond-Tooke, W D 1989. "The aetiology of spirit in
Southern Africa", in Oosthuizen G C et al (eds),
Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Fisher, J D C 1970. Christian Initiation: The Reformation
period. London.
Josephus Flavius 1960. Complete Works, translated by
William Whiston. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications.
Kerkbode, Die. "Kan 'n Christen deur 'n bose gees beset
word"? 29 Oktober 1993.
Kiernan, J P 1990. The Production and Management of
Therapeutic power in Zionist churches within a Zulu
city. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Koch, Kurt 1970. Occult Bondage and Deliverance.
Berghausen: Evangelization Publishers.
Lagerwerf, Leny 1987. Witchcraft, Sorcery and Spirit
Possession. Gweru: Mambo Press.
Mostert, J P 1987. "Men of 'The Spirit' - or of 'Spirit'?
in Oosthuizen G C (ed), Religion Alive. Johannesburg:
Hodder and Stoughton.
Motala, M B 1989. "The relative influence of participation
in Zionist church services on the emotional state of
participants," in Oosthuizen G C et al (eds), Afro-
Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Mthethwa, B N 1989. "Music and dance as therapy in African
traditional societies with special reference to the
iBandla lamaNazaretha (the Church of the Nazarites) in
Oosthuizen G C et al (eds), Afro-Christian Religion and
Healing in Southern Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen
Press.
Oosthuizen, G C 1989. "Indigenous healing within the
context of African Independent Churches" in Oosthuizen
G C et al (eds), Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in
Southern Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Oosthuizen, G C 1989. "Baptism and healing in African
Independent Churches", in Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds),
Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Oosthuizen, G C 1988. "The interpretation of and reaction
to demonic powers in indigenous churches in South
Africa," in Missionalia, Vol XVI No. 1.
Oosthuizen, G C 1992. The Healer-prophet in Afro-Christian
Churches. Leiden: Brill.
Storm, Rachel 1993. Exorcists - The Terrifying Truth.
London: Fount.
Sundkler, B G M 1961. Bantu Prophets in South Africa.
London: Oxford University Press.
Subritzky, Bill 1985. Demons Defeated. Chichester:
Sovereign World.
Whyte, H A Maxwell 1974. A Manual on Exorcism.
Monroeville: Whitaker House.
 

NOTES

1 Oosthuizen, G C 1989. "Indigenous healing within the
context of African Independent Churches", in Oosthuizen
G C et al (eds), Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in
Southern Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 79.
2 Daneel M L 1974. Old and New in Southern Shona
Independent Churches. Volume 2: Church Growth. The
Hague: Mouton, 241.
3 Buhrmann, M V 1989. "Religion and healing: the African
experience", in Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds), Afro-
Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 30-31.
4 Beattie, John and Middleton, John 1969. Spirit
Mediumship and Society in Africa. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul, ix.
5 Storm, Rachel 1993. Exorcists - The Terrifying Truth.
London: Fount, 85-86.
6 Josephus, Flavius 1960. Complete Works, translated by
William Whiston. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 173.
7 Storm, Exorcists, 90.
8 Koch, Kurt 1970. Occult Bondage and Deliverance.
Berghausen: Evangelization Publisher, 99.
9 Oosthuizen, G C 1989. "Baptism and healing in African
Independent Churches", in Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds),
Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 168.
10 Fisher, J D C 1970. Christian Initiation: The
Reformation Period. London, 1970, 6-16, 23-25.
11 Storm, Exorcists, 103-104.
12 Storm, Exorcists, 90-91.
13 Storm, Exorcists, 99.
14 Storm, Exorcists, 107,110.
15 Storm, Exorcists, 112.
16 Collectio Rituum 1960, Durban, 163
17 Kerkbode, Die, "Kan 'n Christen deur 'n bose gees
beset word?" 29 Oktober 1993.
18 Lagerwerf, Leny 1987. Witchcraft, Sorcery and Spirit
Possession. Gweru: Mambo Press, 7-9.
19 Oosthuizen, G C. "Indigenous Healing", 76.
20 Daneel, M L 1971. Old and New in Southern Shona
Independent Churches. Volume 1: Background and Rise of
the Major Movements. The Hague: Mouton, 268.
21 Beattie and Middleton, Spirit Mediumship, ix.
22 Andersson, Efraim 1968. Churches at the Grass-roots.
London: Lutterworth, 141.
23 Lagerwerf, Witchcraft, 9,50,55.
24 Burger, Isak 1987. Die Geskiedenis van die Apostoliese
Geloof Sending van Suid-Afrika (1908-1958).
Braamfontein: Evangeliese Uitgewers, 173,177-180.
25 Anderson, Allan 1992. Bazalwane - African Pentecostals
in South Africa. Pretoria: University of South
Africa, 27-32.
26 Burger, Geskiedenis van die Apostoliese Geloof Sending,
142,194.
27 Oosthuizen, "Indigenous Healing, 73.
28 Sundkler, B G M 1961. Bantu Prophets in South Africa.
London: Oxford University Press, 223-224.
29 Oosthuizen, G C 1992. The Healer-prophet in Afro-
Christian Churches. Leiden: Brill, 88.
30 Edwards, F S 1989. "Amafufunyana spirit possession:
Treatment and interpretation", in Oosthuizen G C et al
(eds), Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern
Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 214.
31 Ibid, 210; Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 88-89.
32 Edwards, "Amafufunyana spirit possession", 210,213,214.
33 Lagerwerf, Witchcraft, 55.
34 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 54.
35 Whyte, H A Maxwell 1974. A Manual on Exorcism.
Monroeville: Whitaker House, 57-58.
36 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet 179.
37 Mostert, J P 1987. "Man of 'The Spirit' - or of 'Spirit'? in Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds), Religion Alive. Johannesburg: Edwin Mellen Press, 87.
38 Hammond-Tooke, W D 1989. "The aetiology of spirit in
Southern Africa", in Oosthuizen GC et al (eds), Afro-
Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 65.
39 Daneel 1974, Old and New, Vol 2, 352.
40 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 49-60.
41 Oosthuizen, "Baptism in the context of the AIC", 173.
42 Daneel 1974, Old and New, Vol 2, 240.
43 Oosthuizen, "Indigenous Healing", 86.
44 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 54.
45 Oosthuizen, "Baptism in the context of the AIC", 175-176.
46 Mostert, "Men of 'The Spirit'", 87.
47 Hammond-Tooke, "The Aetiology of spirit", 62.
48 Ibid.
49 Mostert, "Men of 'The Spirit'", 86.
50 Hammond-Tooke, "The aetiology of spirit", 52.
51 Daneel 1974, Old and New, Vol 2, 348-350.
52 Burger, Geskiedenis van die Apostoliese Geloof
Sending, 140ff.
53 Koch, Occult Bondage, 88.
54 Subritzky, B 1985. Demons Defeated. Chicester:
Sovereign World, 198-200.
55 Anderson, Neil T 1990. The Bondage Breaker. Oregon:
Harvest House, 190,203.
56 Whyte Manual on Exorcism, 80-81,106.
57 Dube, D 1989. "A search for abundant life: health,
healing and wholeness in Zionist Churches," in
Oosthuizen, G C et al (eds), Afro-Christian Religion
and Healing in Southern Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen
Press, 121.
58 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 45.
59 Ibid, 46.
60 Oosthuizen, "Baptism in the context of the AIC", 173.
61 Daneel 1974, Old and New, Vol 2, 240,244-245.
62 Oosthuizen, "Baptism in the context of the AIC", 158,168/
63 Collectio Rituum, 163.
64 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 199,207.
65 Dube, "A search for abundant life", 126.
66 Motala, M B 1989. "The relative influence of participation in Zionist church services on the
emotional state of participants" in Oosthuizen G C et al (eds), Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 199.
67 Daneel 1974, Old and New, Vol 2, 210-211.
68 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 188,191.
69 Whyte, Manual on Exorcism, 80.
70 Koch, Occult Bondage, 98.
71 Anderson, The Bondage Breaker, 196,198,199,200.
72 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 55.
73 Dube, "A search for abundant life", 127.
74 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 60.
75 Edwards, "Amafufunyana spirit possession", 340,341,344.
76 Oosthuizen, "Baptism in the context of the AIC", 169.
77 Storm, Exorcists, 104.
78 Whyte, Exorcists, 100; Koch, Occult Bondage, 105-109,
Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 187; Anderson, The Bondage
Breaker, 90.
79 Anderson, The Bondage Breaker, 86-91, 188-194.
80 Whyte, Exorcists, 86.
81 Koch, Occult Bondage, 108.
82 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 203.
83 Oosthuizen, "Indigenous healing", 82.
84 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 65.
85 Ibid, 69.
86 Ibid, 86.
87 Sundkler, Bantu Prophets, 232.
88 Whyte, Manual on Exorcism, 78.
89 Koch, Occult Bondage, 11,109,126.
90 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 190.
91 Anderson, The Bondage Breaker, 207-208.
92 Sundkler, Bantu Prophets, 231-232.
93 Becken, H-J 1989. "African Independent Churches as
healing communities", in Oosthuizen, GC et al (eds),
Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 236.
94 Daneel, Old and New, Vol 2, 241.
95 Storm, Exorcists, 101.
96 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 120.
97 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 47,166.
98 Storm, Exorcists, 102.
99 Koch, Occult Bondage, 88,120.
100 Anderson, The Bondage Breaker, 133,221.
101 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 187,188,211.
102 Mthethwa, B N 1989. Music and dance as therapy in
African traditional societies with special reference
to the iBandla LamaNazaretha (the Church of the
Nazarites) in Oosthuizen, GC et al (eds), Afro-
Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 244.
103 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 55-59.
104 Mthethwa, "Music and dance", 254.
105 Daneel, Old and New, Vol 2, 240-241.
106 Dube, "A search for abundant life", 126.
107 Kiernan, J P 1990. The Production and management of
therapeutic power in Zionist churches within a Zulu
city. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 118.
108 Oosthuizen, "Indigenous healing:, 86.
109 Oosthuizen, "The Healer-prophet", 61,162, Daneel,
Old and New, Vol 2,243.
110 Kiernan, The production and management of therapeutic
power, 118-119; Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 62.
111 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 62.
112 Edwards, "Amafufunyana spirit possession", 215.
113 Storm, Exorcists, 103.
114 Ibid, 90,191,214.
115 Subritzky, Demons Defeated, 188.
116 Edwards, "Amafufunyana spirit possession", 222-223.
117 Wessels, H W 1989. "Healing practices in the African
Independent Churches", in Oosthuizen, GC et at,
Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa".
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 98-100.
118 Dickson, C Fred 1987. Demon Possession and the
Christian. Chicago: Moody Press.
119 Oosthuizen G C 1988. "The interpretation of and
reaction to demonic powers in indigenous churches in
South Africa", in Missionalia, Vol XVI, no.1.
120 Storm, Exorcists, 192.
121 Edwards, "Amafufunyana spirit possession", 214.
122 Oosthuizen, The Healer-prophet, 54.